The study, which analysed academic literature to determine trends and identify knowledge gaps in housing inequality research over the past four decades, found issues experienced in the UK were largely mirrored across the globe – with many problems caused by a lack of understanding around the impact felt by those from contrasting backgrounds.

The research uncovered how most studies focused on China, the United States or the UK - highlighting a distinct lack of research on smaller cities, rural areas and less economically developed countries. Meanwhile, inequality in larger cities is prevalent due to a market driven environment whilst many, well-intending housing policies often exacerbate inequality due to a lack of understanding.

Housing Inequality At Home

The study found that, in England and across Europe, housing inequality is heavily influenced by income disparity, a lack of affordable/social housing, access to decent housing, landlord practices, and policy decisions.

Meanwhile, the English Housing Survey calculated approximately 14% of households in England live in non-decent conditions - which fail to meet basic health and safety standards.

Follow-up research by University researchers in Nottingham highlighted several key concerns among residents, including insufficient new social and affordable housing, high costs, and the role of landlords.

One resident highlighted that their area, once the largest council estate in Europe, saw many properties sold at discounted rates under the right-to-buy scheme in the 1970s and 1980s. As these properties were inherited and sold off, private landlords converted them into rental properties - a situation the resident describes as “short-term gain for long-term pain”.

Another resident noted issues with 'buy-to-let' landlords, citing unaffordable rents and poor property conditions, including lack of heating and repairs. One resident remarked, “I’m selling my property due to many repairs, not hot water/heating for the last three years. Disabled for 8 years and received no help with housing or repairs.”

Others told researchers how private landlords do not maintain properties properly and companies buy up houses to run as AirBnBs due to the area’s proximity to the town centre – further reducing the availability of long-term rental options.

Housing Inequality Abroad

This theme is persistent across Europe with similar issues manifesting in different ways based on local policies and economic conditions – with widening income disparities across the continent causing huge inequality.

For instance, deregulation and emphasis on homeownership in Rotterdam since the 1980s has disproportionately benefited wealthier neighbourhoods whilst housing policies in Vienna has led to a substantial percentage of the population living in social housing – a contrast to the market driven approaches used in larger cities like London or New York.

In contrast to Europe, housing inequality in the United States mostly relates to racial and ethnic segmentation – with Black and Hispanic households disproportionately impacted with higher rates of cost burden and lower homeownership rates compared to their white counterparts. According to analysis from the National Association of Realtors’, the homeownership rate is around 73% for white Americans, but only 44% for Black Americans and 51% for Hispanic Americans.

A significant contributor to these disparities is the historical practice of redlining, where minority neighbourhoods were systematically denied mortgages and investment, leading to long-term economic disadvantages that continue to affect these communities today.

The University’s research found that more of a third of housing inequality studies focused on China.  It found how the Hukou household registration system in the country has heightened inequalities by linking access to social benefits and housing to an individual’s registered location. This has led to significant challenges in accessing affordable, urban housing for the 290 million people who have migrated internally since 2020.

From the Researchers

Senior Lecturer in Urban Planning within the University’s School for Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Dr Taimaz Larimian, said it was crucial that research was conducted into this area: “Housing inequality is a complex and multifaceted issue that impacts various aspects of life, including health, education, and overall well-being. Researching this area allows for a deeper understanding of how different factors interconnect and influence each other. By examining these interrelationships, we gained a comprehensive view of housing inequality that goes beyond just affordability and addresses the broader implications for individuals and communities.

“This research was essential for identifying significant gaps in existing studies. We found a notable geographical skew and a lack of attention to smaller urban and rural settings. By pinpointing these gaps, we’ve highlighted the need for a more inclusive perspective.”

Doctoral Researcher, Mahla Tayefi Nasrabadi  hopes their research leads to a wider understanding across society: “For policymakers, the goal is to provide actionable insights that lead to more equitable housing policies. Our findings reveal that current policies often exacerbate inequalities rather than address them, often failing to account for diverse socio-economic realities. By highlighting these issues, we hope to encourage the development of policies that are more inclusive and effective in reducing housing disparities.

“For the public, our research aims to raise awareness about the complexities of housing inequality. Understanding that housing issues are interconnected with broader social and economic factors can empower individuals to advocate for change and support initiatives that promote fair housing practices. Moreover, by shedding light on how housing inequality affects various demographics differently, we hope to foster a more empathetic and informed public discourse.”

Report Recommendations

The study concludes by recommending several key strategies to help tackle housing inequality effectively:

• Develop and Implement Comprehensive Housing Policies - including examining the long-term impact of housing policies and investigating the effects of broad governmental policies on local housing disparities.
• Enhance Research on Diverse Geographies – including focusing on housing market dynamics in less-developed countries and smaller cities as well as comparative studies across countries with varied housing systems.
• Address Intersectionality and Multi-Dimensional Disadvantages – including exploring how different dimensions of disadvantage, such as race, ethnicity, income, and education, intersect to create unique experiences of housing inequality.
• Integrate Socio-Cultural Factors into Housing Solutions – including developing an understanding of how cultural expectations and societal values influence housing preferences and access with a focus on longitudinal research.
• Foster Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships – encouraging collaboration among government agencies, private sector stakeholders, and community organisations.