Cycling Aerodynamics: Impact of Fabric Design
Qualification(s) available: PhD
- Entry requirements
- 2:1+
- Fees for 2024-25 (per academic year)
-
UK: Fully fundedInternational: Not applicable
- Full-time
- 3 years
- Start date
- October 2024
- Application deadline
- 23 August 2024
- Project reference
- AAE-DW-2406
- Location
- Loughborough
- Subject area(s)
- Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering
Project details
Applications are invited for a three-year PhD studentship to investigate the influence of fabric design on the aerodynamic drag of elite cyclists. The project will be jointly funded by Loughborough University and Tudor Pro Cycling Team. Whilst most of the research will be conducted at the University a portion of the work will also be conducted in close collaboration with Tudor Pro and their partners.
At speeds typical of pro-cyclists, the aerodynamic drag is the major force the rider must overcome and reducing this is crucial to maximise speed for a given rider power. However, cycling aerodynamics is complex and difficult to characterise due the effects of Reynold number, surface roughness, boundary layer transition, flow separation and turbulent wakes. It is well known that cyclists’ apparel can significantly affect drag due to, for example, surface texture or weft/weave on certain fabric designs. Consequently, the use of so-called skinsuits is common to maximise performance.
However, the knowledge base on this is limited. This is not just restricted to understanding the effect of fabric design but also how the aerodynamics interacts as a system with different riders, bikes, speeds. Ultimately, the lack of fundamental knowledge means final designs are often trial and error and no robust predictive design tool exists.
The doctoral research will use a combination of wind tunnel experiments and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to build a clearer understanding of the fundamental fluid mechanics. This will be coupled to fabric and rider specific parameters to predict and realise consistent drag reduction in race situations. The overarching aim is to establish a workflow for the rapid prototyping of design for system optimisation.
It is expected that the successful candidate will be a cycling enthusiast and be motivated to develop a career in the cycling industry. They will need to have studied fluid mechanics and/or aerodynamics, as part of an engineering degree, and have some experience of the use of wind tunnels and CFD (preferably as part of an individual project).
As part of the applied aerodynamics group, the successful candidate will have access to the large open circuit wind tunnel at Loughborough University and advanced measurement techniques such as Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) as well as high performance computing and CFD simulation packages. As appropriate, they may need to develop or implement new measurement or modelling techniques.
They will also work alongside the sponsor Tudor Pro Cycling, use the wind-tunnel facilities at Silverstone Sport Engineering Hub and, if required, travel to with the team to collect data. It is expected that throughout the project the researcher will present work both to the industrial sponsor, their partners and at international academic conferences.
Supervisors
Primary supervisor: Professor Duncan Walker
Secondary supervisor: Dr Daniel Butcher
Entry requirements
Our entry requirements are listed using standard UK undergraduate degree classifications i.e. first-class honours, upper second-class honours and lower second-class honours. To learn the equivalent for your country, please choose it from the drop-down below.
Entry requirements for United Kingdom
Students should have, or expect to achieve, a minimum 2:1 degree in an Engineering discipline or related field.
Afghanistan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Masters | 95% | 85% | 70% |
Albania
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diplomë e Nivelit të Pare (First Level (University) Diploma (from 2010) | 9.5 | 8.5 | 8 |
Algeria
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licence (4 year) / Diplome d'Inginieur d'Etat / Diplôme d'Etudes Supérieures | 16 | 14 | 12 |
Argentina
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licenciatura/ Licenciado (4 year) | 8.5 | 7.5 | 6.0 |
Armenia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bakalavri Kochum required but typically a Magistrosi Kochum | 90% or 3.9 | 80% or 3.5 | 70% or 3.0 |
Australia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Honours degree (AQF level 8) | First Class, 80% | Upper Second, 70%, H2A | Lower Second, 60%, 2B |
| Ordinary degree - AQF Level 7 pass (mark 46 or 50) | High Distinction (80% or 85%) | Distinction (75% or 80%) | Distinction (70% or 75%) |
Austria
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Degree/ Diplomstudium / Magister degree | A (or 1.5) mit Auszeichnungbestanden | 60% or B or 3.0 (or 2) | 50% or C or 2.7 (or 3) |
Azerbaijan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bakalavr Diplomu/ Diplomu (Specialist Diploma) | 4.5 or 90% | 4 or 80% | 3.5 or 70% |
Bahamas
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Degree from University of the West Indies only | 1st (GPA 3.6) | 2:1 (GPA 3.0) | 2:2 (GPA 2.5) |
Bahrain
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.8 |
Bangladesh
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 year Bachelor of Science in Engineering (IEB and BAETE accredited courses only) | 1st (70%) / 3.5 | 2nd (60%) / 3.0 | 2nd (55%) / 2.75 |
| Masters (1-2 years) following a 3 or 4 year degree | 80% / 4.0 | 65% / 3.25 | 50% / 2.5 |
Belarus
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Specialist Diploma (5Yr) | 9 | 7 | 5 |
Belgium
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bachelor degree/Licenciaat/Licencie | 80% or 17 | 70% or 14 | 60% or 12 |
Belize
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Degree from University of the West Indies only | 1st (GPA 3.6) | 2:1 (GPA 3.0) | 2:2 (GPA 2.5) |
Benin
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Maitrise | 18 | 15 or Bien | 12 or Assez Bien |
Bermuda
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Degree from University of the West Indies only | 1st (GPA 3.6) | 2:1 (GPA 3.0) | 2:2 (GPA 2.5) |
Bolivia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| A Licenciado, 4 years Private (public/private) | 85/78 | 75/66 | 67/55 |
Bosnia and Herzegovina
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diploma Visokog Obrazovanja / Diplomirani | 10 | 9 | 8 |
Botswana
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Master's degree | A or 80% | B or 70% | C or 60% |
Brazil
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brazil - 4 yr Bacharel or Licenciado/Licenciatura or Título Profissional | 8.5 | 7.5 | 6.5 |
Brunei
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brunei | First | Upper Second (60%/B/3.1) | Lower Second (50%/C/2.7) |
Bulgaria
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5 yr Diploma za Zavarsheno Visshe Obrazovanie (Diploma of Completed Higher Education) | 6 | 5 | 4 |
Burundi
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Masters or Diplôme d'Études Approfondies or Diplôme Ingénieur (professional title) | 18 | 15/20 (Bien) | 12.5/20 (Assez Bien) |
Cambodia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Masters | 80% or B+ or 3.5 | 70% or B or 3.0 | 60% or C+ or 2.5 |
Cameroon
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bachelor degree or Diplome d'Etudes Superiures de Commerce or Diplome d'Ingenieur or Diplôme d'Ingénieur de Conception or a Maitrise or a 4-year Licence. | 1st or 15/20 or GPA 3.7 | 2:1 or 14/20 or Bien (GPA 3.4) | 2:2 or 12.5/20 or Assez Bien (GPA 3.1) |
Canada
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0/Percentage | 3.7/85% | 3.3/75% | 2.7/68% |
| Out of 9 | 8 | 6 | 5 |
| Out of 12 | 10 | 8 | 6 |
Chile
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grado de Licenciado / Título (Profesional) de [subject area] (4 years) | 6 | 5.5 | 5 |
China
Students are required to have a bachelor degree (4 years) for entry to a postgraduate programme. The University uses the Shanghai Academic Ranking of World Universities to identify the required final mark, as outlined on the table below:
| First class (70%) | Mid 2:1 (65%) | 2:1 (60%) | Mid 2:2 (55%) | 2:2 (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shanghai Rank Top 250 | 83% | 79% | 75% | 73% | 70% |
| Shanghai Rank 251-500 | 88% | 84% | 80% | 78% | 75% |
| Shanghai Rank 501+ | 92% | 87% | 84% | 82% | 80% |
Affiliated colleges
The University will consider students from Affiliated Colleges in the following way:
Applicants from colleges affiliated to universities in the top 250 Shanghai rankings will be considered if they have achieved or are likely to achieve final marks of 75%-84%.
Applicants from colleges affiliated to universities which are 251-500 in the Shanghai rankings will be considered if they have achieved or are likely to achieve final marks of 80%-87%.
Applicants from colleges affiliated to universities which are above 500 in the Shanghai rankings will be considered as follows:
- School of Business and Economics: not considered
- All other programmes if they have achieved or are likely to achieve final marks of 80%-87%.
Universities given special consideration
Applicants from a small number of Chinese universities that specialise in business, management, finance or creative arts will be given special consideration by the University. The full list of these universities and the Shanghai band under which they will be considered can be found below:
| University | Chinese name | Considered inband |
| Beijing Film Academy | 北京电影学院 | Top 250 |
| Capital University of Physical Education and Sports* | 首都体育学院 | Top 250 |
| Central Academy of Drama | 中央戏剧学院 | Top 250 |
| Central Academy for Fine Arts | 中央美术学院 | Top 250 |
| Central Conservatory of Music | 中央音乐学院 | Top 250 |
| China Academy of Art | 中国美术学院 | Top 250 |
| China Conservatory of Music
|
中国音乐学院 | Top 250 |
|
Guangzhou Sport University* |
广州体育学院 | 251-500 |
|
Harbin University of Finance (Harbin Finance University) |
哈尔滨金融学院 | 251-500 |
| Northwest University of Political Science and Law | 西北政法大学 | Top 250 |
| Shanghai Customs College | 上海海关学院 | Top 250 |
| Tianjin Sport University* | 天津体育学院 | Top 250 |
*Special consideration for programmes in School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences and Institute for Sport Business only.
Students who do not meet the above requirements may occasionally be considered if they have a relevant degree, can show good grades in relevant subjects, and/or have substantial relevant work experience.
Colombia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licenciado / Título de [subject area] | 4.5 | 3.75 | 3.2 |
Costa Rica
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licenciado | 9 | 8 or 80 | 7 or 75 |
Croatia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Baccalaureus / Prvostupnik | 4.5 | 3.8 | 3.0 |
Cuba
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4-year Titulo de Licenciado / Licenciatura | 5 | 4 | 3 |
Cyprus
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cyprus | 8.5 | 7.0 | 6.5 |
Czech Republic
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bakalár (after 2001) 6 yr integrated Magistr | 1 | 1.5 | 2 |
Denmark
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5 year Candidatus/Candidata Magisterii or Bachelor degree (7 point scale) | 12 | 10 | 7 |
Dominican Republic
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 year Licenciado or Título de [subject area] | 3.8 | Magna Cum Laude or 3.5 or 85% | Cum Laude or 3.2 or 82% |
Ecuador
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Título de Licenciado / Título de [subject area] | 8.5 / 85% | 8 / 80% | 7 / 70% |
Egypt
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Egypt | 3.5 | 3.2 | 2.8 |
| Universities only | BA 90%, BSc 85% | BA 80%, BSc 75% | BA 65%, BSc 65% |
El Salvador
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5 year Licenciado, Título de Ingeniero/Arquitecto | 8.5, 85% | 7.5, 75% or Muy Bueno | 6.5, 65% or Bueno |
Estonia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bakalaureusekraad or Magister or Magistrikraad | 5 or A | 4 or B | 3 or C |
Ethiopia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Master's | A/GPA 4.0 | A/GPA 3.5 | B/GPA 2.8 |
Finland
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kandidaattii/Kandidat or the Maisteri/Magister | 3 (out of 3) or 4.5 (out of 5) | 2 (out of 3) or 3 (out of 5) | 1 (out of 3) or 2.5 (out of 5) |
France
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licence (3 years)/ Maitrise/ Diplôme d'Ingénieur | 14 | 13 | 11 |
Georgia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4-year degree (% = new system) | 5 (95%) | 4.5 (85%) | 4 (75%) |
Germany
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| German Bachelor/ Diplom, Magister Artium / Zeugnis über den Zweiten Abschnitt der Ärztlichen Prüfung | 1.5 | 2.5 | 3.0 |
Ghana
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ghana | First | Upper second/60% | Lower second/50% |
Greece
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Universities | 8.5 | 7.0 | 6 |
| TEI and non-University Institutions | 8.5 | 7 | 6.5 |
Grenada
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Degree from University of West Indies - classification | 1st | 2:1 | 2:2 |
| Degree from University of West Indies - grade / percentage | A | B / 75% | C / 55% |
| Degree from University of West Indies - GPA | 3.6 | 3.0 | 2.0 |
Guatemala
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Liceniado / Titulo de (subject area) - 4 years | 90% (public university) / 95% (private university) | 80% (public university) / 85% (private university) | 60% (public university) / 70% (private university) |
Guyana
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Master's | GPA 4 | GPA 3.5 | 3.0 |
Honduras
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Título de Licenciado / Grado Académico de Licenciatura (4 year degree) - GPA out of 5 | GPA 5 or 90% | GPA 4 or 80% | GPA 3.5 or 70% |
Hong Kong
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.5 |
Hungary
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alapfokozt or Egyetemi Oklevel / Bachelor | 5 | 4 | 3 |
Iceland
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Baccalaurreatus degree or Kandidatsprof/Candidatus Mag | 8.5 | 7.5 | 6.5 |
India
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Institutions listed on the National Institutional Ranking Framework | 65% (First) | 60% (First) | 55% (Upper second) |
| All other Indian institutions | 70% (First with distinction) | 65% (First) | 60% (First) |
Indonesia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sarjana I (S1) from accredited Universities | 3.3 | 3.0 | 2.8 |
Iran
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Iran | 17 | 15 | 13 |
Iraq
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Iraq | 80% | 75% | 70% |
Ireland
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Republic of Ireland | First (70%) | Upper second (60%) | Lower second (50%) |
Israel
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3 yr Bachelor Degree | 90% | 80% | 70% |
Italy
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diploma di Laurea | 109/110 | 104/110 (or 27) | 100/110 (or 26) |
Ivory Coast
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diplome d'Etude Approfondies, Diplome d'Etude Superieures or Diplome d'Etude Superieures | 16 | 14 (Bien) | 12 (Assez Bien) |
Jamaica
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| For degrees studied at The University of West Indies or degrees accredited by UCJ and CCCJ | 1st (GPA 3.6) | 2:1 (GPA 3.0) or B | 2:2 (GPA 2.0) or C |
Japan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gakushi – GPA 4.0 scale | 85% or A or 3.5 | 80% or B or 3.0 | 70% or C or 2.0 |
Jordan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3 or 3.5/5 or 75% | 2.8 or 65% |
Kazakhstan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 5.0/percentage scale | 4.5 or 90% | 4 or 85% | 3.5 or 80% |
| GPA 4.33 scale | 3.9 | 3.7 | 3.2 |
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.7 | 3.4 | 3 |
Kenya
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kenya | First / 70% / A | Upper second / 60% / B | Lower second / 50% / C |
Kosovo
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kosovo | 10 | 9 | 8 |
Kuwait
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.6 | 3.0 | 2.8 |
Latvia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Latvia | 9 | 7 | 6 |
Lebanon
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| American | 90% (3.5) | 80% (3.2) | 70% (2.8) |
| French | 18 | 15 | 12 |
Liberia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Master's | 4.0 or 90% | 3.5 or 85% | 3 or 80% |
Libya
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| BSc Engineering, Architecture, Medicine | 85 (3.6) | 75 (3.0) | 65 (2.5) |
| Other bachelor's degree from a university | 90 (4.0) | 85% (3.6) | 75% (3.0) |
Lithuania
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lithuania | 9 | 8 | 7 |
Luxembourg
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Luxembourg | 18 (excellent) | 16 (tres Bien) | 14 (bien) |
Macau
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Macau | 1st or GPA 3.7 | 2:1 or GPA 3.0 | 2:2 or GPA 2.5 |
Macedonia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Magistar Дипломиран / Баццалауреус / Баццалауреа (Bachelor degree) | 10 | 9 | 8 |
Malawi
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Master's only | MSc 75% | MSc 70% | MSc 65% |
Malaysia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Classification | First Class | 2.1 | 2.2 |
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.8 |
Malta
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Malta | 1st (80%) | 2:1 (70%) | 2:2 (55%) |
Mauritius
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mauritius | 1st or 70% | 2:1 or 60% | 2:2 or 50% |
Mexico
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licenciatura / Licenciado/ Título (Profesional) de [subject area] | 9 | 8 | 7 |
Moldova
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diploma de Licenţă (Diploma of Licentiate) | 10 | 9 | 8 |
Mongolia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Диплом Специалиста (Specialist Diploma) | 90% or 3.5 | 80% or GPA 3.2 | 70% or GPA 3.0 |
Montenegro
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diploma of Completed Undergraduate Studies or Diploma of Professional Undergraduate Studies | 10 (or 5.0) | 9 (or 4.5) | 8 (or 4.0) |
Morocco
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diplôme d'Ingénieur d'État, Diplôme d'Écoles Nationales de Commerce et de Gestion, Licence / Licence d'Études Fondamentales / Licence Professionnelle | 17 | 15 | 13 |
Mozambique
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 year Licenciatura | 16 | 14 | 12 |
Myanmar (Burma)
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2 year Master's degree | 5 or 85% | 5 or 75% | 4.5 or 65% |
Namibia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Honours degree (post 2008) or Masters | 80% or A | 70% or B | 60% or C |
Nepal
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Master's (after 3 year bachelor degree) | 90% or 3.9 GPA | 80% or 3.8 GPA | 65% or 3.3 GPA |
Netherlands
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Netherlands | 8 | 7 | 6 |
New Zealand
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 Year Honours degree (480 credits) - Level 8 | First (7.0) | Upper Second (6.0) | Lower Second (4.0) |
| 3 Year degree (360 credits) - Level 7 | A+ (9.0) | A- (7.0) | B+ (6.0) |
Nicaragua
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licenciatura (4 year) | 90% | 80% | 70% |
Nigeria
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 7 point Scale | 6 | 5 | 4 |
| 5 point scale | 4.5 | 3.8 | 3.5 |
| 4 point scale | 3.5 | 3 | 2.5 |
Norway
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Norway | A | B | C |
Oman
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.5 |
Pakistan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 Year degree only (the higher of the 2 options) | A- or GPA 3.7 | B or GPA 3.0 | C+ or GPA 2.6 |
| 2 or 3 year Bachelor plus Masters | 1st (60%) plus GPA 3.7 | 2nd (55%) plus GPA 3.0 | 2nd (50%) plus GPA 2.6 |
Palestine
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bachelor Degree | A / 90% / 3.7 | B+ / 85% / 3.3 | B / 80% / 3.0 |
Panama
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 Year Licenciado / Título de [subject area] | 91 (A) | 81 (B) | 71 (C) |
Papua New Guinea
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bachelor (Honours) Degree | 1st | 2:1 | 2:2 |
Paraguay
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 Year Título de Licenciado / Título de [subject area] | 4.5 (85%) | 4 (80%) | 3.5 (75%) |
Peru
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 Year Título de Licenciado / Título de [subject area] | 14 | 13 | 12 |
Philippines
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Degree from prestigious state universities or Centres of Excellence (COE) | Summa Cum Laude 4.0 / 96% / 1.0 | Magna cum Laude 3.5 / 92% / 1.5 | Cum Laude 3.0 / 87%/ 2.0 |
Poland
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bachelor Degree (post 2003) Magister (pre- 2003) | 5 | 4.5 / 4+ | 4 |
Portugal
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diploma de Estudos Superiores Especializados (DESE) or Licenciado | 18 | 16 | 14 |
Qatar
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.8 |
Romania
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diploma de Licenta/ Diploma de Inginer | 9 | 8 | 7 |
Russia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bakalavr/Specialist Diploma/Magistr | 4.5 | 4.0 | 3.5 |
Rwanda
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 year bachelor (Hons) degree (480 credits) | 1st, 16/20 (80%) | 2:1,14/20 (70%) | 2:2, 12/20 (60%) |
Saudi Arabia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.8 |
| GPA 5.0 scale | 4.5 | 3.75 | 3.5 |
Senegal
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Maitrise, Diplome d'Etude Approfondies, Diplome d'Etude Superieures or Diplome d'Etude Superieures Specialisees | 16/20 or Tres Bien | 14/20 or Bien | 12/20 or Assez Bien |
Serbia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diplomirani/ Bachelor's degree | 9 | 8 | 7 |
Sierra Leone
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Honours degree or masters | 1st (70%) | 2:1 (60% or B) | 2:2 (50% or C) |
Singapore
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Classification | First | Upper second | Lower second |
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.7 | 3.0 | 2.7 |
| GPA 5.0 scale | 4.5 | 3.5 | 3.0 |
Slovakia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bakalár (from 2005) Magister / Inzinier | 1.5 or B | 2.0 or C | 2.5 or C/high D |
Slovenia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| University Diplom | 9.5 | 8.5 | 7 |
South Africa
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bachelor (Honours) or B Tech after 4 yrs study | 1st or 75% | 2:1 or 70% | 2:2 or 60% |
South Korea
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA out of 4.5 | 4.0 / A | 3.5 / B | 3.0 / C+ |
| GPA out of 4.3 | 4.0 / A | 3.0 / B | 2.7 / C+ |
Spain
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licenciado / Título de Ingeniero / Título de Arquitecto | 8.5 | 7 | 6.5 |
| UCM grading | 3.0 | 2.0 | 1.5 |
Sri Lanka
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 year Professional degree or Bachelor Special or Honours degree | 90%, GPA 3.70 | 80%, GPA 3.30 | 70%, GPA 3.0 |
Sudan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 year degree | 1st, 70%, B+ | 2:1, 66% | mid 2:2, 60%, B |
Sweden
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kandidatexamen or Magisterexamen | Overall grade of VG with a minimum of 120 credits at VG | B or Overall grade of VG with a minimum of 90 credits at VG | C or Overall grade of G with a minimum of 90 credits at G |
Switzerland
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bachelor Degree, Diplom or Lizentiat (10/6/5) | 10 / 6 / 1 | 8 / 5 / 2 | 6 / 4 / 3 |
Syria
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| State universities 4 years of study | 80% | 70% | 60% |
| Private universities 4 years of study | 90% | 80% | 70% |
Taiwan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Category 1 (4 year degree) | 80% | 75% | 70% |
| Category 2 (4 year degree) | 85% | 80% | 75% |
Tajikistan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Диплом специалиста - Specialist Diploma | 5 | 4.5 | 4 |
Tanzania
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tanzania | 1st | 2:1 | 2:2 |
Thailand
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.8 |
Trinidad and Tobago
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| For degrees studied at The University of West Indies or degrees accredited by ACTT | 1st or B+ or 70% | 2:1 or B or 65% | 2:2 or B- or 60% |
Tunisia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licence, Maîtrise, Diplôme National d'Ingénieu | 16 (tres bien) | 14 (bien) | 11 (assez bien) |
Turkey
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lisans Diplomasi or a Műhendis Diplomasi | 3.5 | 3 | 2.5 |
Turkmenistan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 Yr Bakalavr, Specialist Diploma or Magistr | 5 | 4.5 | 4 |
Uganda
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Uganda | 1st or 4.4 | 2:1 or 3.8 | 2:2 or 3.0 |
Ukraine
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dyplom Magistra or a Bachelors degree (11 / 5) | 4.5 | 4.0 | 3.5 |
United Arab Emirates
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.6 |
United States of America
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| GPA 4.0 scale | 3.5 | 3.2 | 2.8 |
Uruguay
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licenciado (4 year) | 10 | 9 | 8 |
Uzbekistan
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bakalavr Diplomi / Diplomi (Specialist Diploma) | 90% or GPA 4.5 | 80% or GPA 4.0 | 70% or GPA 3.0 |
Venezuela
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Licenciado/Professional title. (4 year) | 18/20 or 8/9 | 16/20 or 7/9 | 14/20 or 6/9 |
Vietnam
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 10-point scale | 8.0 | 7.0 | 6.0 |
| 4-point scale | 3.5 | 3.0 | 2.8 |
Zambia
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Master's | A or 4.0 or 80% | B+, 3.5 or 70% | B or 3.0 or 60% |
Zimbabwe
| First-class honours (70%) | Upper second-class honours (60%) | Lower second-class honours (50%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3/4 year degree | 1st or 75% | 2:1 or 65% | 2:2 or 60% |
English language requirements
Applicants must meet the minimum English language requirements. Further details are available on the International website.
Fees and funding
Tuition fees for 2024-25 entry
UK fee
Fully funded Full-time degree per annum
International fee
Not applicable Full-time degree per annum
2024-25 tuition fees are applicable to projects starting in October 2024, January 2025, April 2025 and July 2025.
Tuition fees cover the cost of your teaching, assessment and operating University facilities such as the library, IT equipment and other support services. University fees and charges can be paid in advance and there are several methods of payment, including online payments and payment by instalment. Fees are reviewed annually and are likely to increase to take into account inflationary pressures.
The studentship is for 3 years and provides a tax-free stipend of £19237 per annum for the duration of the studentship plus tuition fees at the UK rate. Due to funding restrictions, this is only available to those eligible for UK fees.
How to apply
All applications should be made online. Under the programme name, select 'Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering'. Please quote the advertised reference number AAE-DW-2406 in your application.
To avoid delays in processing your application, please ensure that you submit the minimum supporting documents.
Please also read the following selection criteria as this will be used by academic schools to help them make a decision on your application.